The Martin Luther King, Jr. Assassination - 655 Words

It was the day after Martin Luther King, Jr.’s assassination, April 5th, 1968, when third grade teacher, Jane Elliott conducted her first â€Å"Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes† exercise in her classroom. Just two years later, her class project went viral, and she drew national attention when ABC broadcasted her story in a documentary, Eye of the Storm. After researching Elliott further, I discovered that her simple role playing exercise surely changed her life, and this publication kick charged her equality campaign in which she continues to advocate for today by crusading throughout North America and delivering lectures about the realities of discrimination. Jane’s special project sparked when she told her young class of eight and nine year olds that blue-eyed people were smarter and were better than brown-eyed people. Blue-eyed children were allowed an extra five minutes at recess, could have extras at lunch, got to sit in the front of the classroom, and were greatly appl auded for their successes. On the opposite spectrum, brown-eyed students were forced to wear navy fabric collars in order to be easily identified. The groups were forced into segregation and were not allowed to play with one another out on the playground. Even when a brown-eyed student is tormented, the exercise continues; it is all a part of the experiment. The next day, the children switched roles, allowing them to all comprehend the degrading and humiliating emotional aspects of being an â€Å"outsider†. While viewingShow MoreRelated Racial Controversy Surrounding the Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.3071 Words   |  13 Pages The Racial Controversy Surrounding the Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. The impact of Martin Luther King, Jr. today is no doubt revered. 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After they got married, Martin moved to Montgomery, Alabama taking Coretta with him. Once they moved to Montgomery, Martin took a job of being a pastor of Dexter Avenue Baptist Church. Coretta was saw as a typical Pastors wife. She helped out withRead MoreThe Trials and Tribulations of Martin Luther King Jr1877 Words   |  8 PagesMarch 25, 2010 Abstract This paper is meant to describe the trials and tribulations as well as the influences and effects that the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. had on the 1960’s and beyond. Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King was born on January 15, 1929 as Michael Luther King but changed his name to Martin in 1934. King was brought up in a morally wealthy family as his grandfather and father both served as pastors. He had a B.A. from Morehouse College and a B.DRead MoreMartin Luther King vs. Malcolm X Essay825 Words   |  4 PagesTwo of the greatest know civil rights speakers in the United States was Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm x. 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A Article On Condemn The Crime, Not The Person - 1179 Words

In her article, â€Å"Condemn the Crime, Not the Person,† June Tangney argues that shaming causes more harm than good. She focuses on alternatives to traditional sentences instead of shaming and incarceration. As a more recent trend, officials are using shaming sentences more and more. Tangney states that it is important to know the distinction between shame and guilt. Tangney states, that research has shown feeling of guilt â€Å"involve a sense of tension and regret over the bad thing done.† Guilt makes people feel bad. It makes them want to change their behavior whereas shame does not motivate people to feel better and they are less likely to stop their wrong behavior (577). She also states that scientific evidence suggested publicly shaming a person makes a problem instead of creating a constructive change in them and individuals may hide and escape the shameful feelings and try to blame others (577). In conclusion, Tangney suggest community service as a sentence f or offenders to pay their debt to society for their wrongdoing, been linked to the crime they did. Her tone is informative and innovative and keeps the reader interested while reading. However, this article displays weakness in term of the evidence the author presents, it is one sided and does not provide evidence her suggestion for community service as a sentence option works. Therefore, it fails to persuade the reader. Tangney’s essay suggested that all minor crimes should be handled with guilt punishments;Show MoreRelatedThe Dangers Of The Moral Relativism Concept1322 Words   |  6 PagesDangers of the Moral Relativism Concept By Gregory Baker | Submitted On January 20, 2011 Recommend Article Article Comments Print Article Share this article on Facebook 1 Share this article on Twitter Share this article on Google+ Share this article on Linkedin Share this article on StumbleUpon Share this article on Delicious Share this article on Digg Share this article on Reddit Share this article on Pinterest Expert Author Gregory Baker Ethical subjectivism and cultural moral relativism are dangerousRead MoreSimilarly, The United States Lgbtq+ Community Suffers From1470 Words   |  6 Pagesas publicly seen or heard of as in Russia, but it is still there. Russia and the U.S have similar, yet different forms of hate crimes against LGBTQ+ persons. 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Report for Ergonomic-Free-Samples for Students-Myassignmenthelp

Question: Write a Report for Ergonomic Solutions for Arthritic Workers. Answer: Introduction: The report is prepared to be presented to the board of directors of Amazing Suppliers that has been introducing change in work shift of their warehouse staffs. Amazing Suppliers is a large organization that supplies wide range of goods that they sell it through online channel. Since the demand of products sold is quite high, it has been decided that in some areas. Twenty hour of working would be introduced and this shift system would be majorly impacting warehouse staffs. Report intends to analyse the impact of extended, overtime and long working hours and challenges faced by organization. Twenty four working hours for the warehouse staffs would adversely affecting the health and wellbeing of employees. Long working hours are potentially dangerous to health of workers. Long working hours comes with the challenge and risk of occupational illness and injuries. Challenges can be faced relating to work life balance and workers might face psychological issues due to long extended working hours. They would face changes sleeping and eating phase. Another issue is faced in terms of inefficiency in the performance of workers due to disruption of circadian rhythm combined with fatigue and sleep deficit. Organization would have lower efficiency of performance for warehouse staffs. Long working shift would case long-term effects concerning health and higher social and economic cost for both organization and society as a whole (Broberg and Hall-Andersen 2014). On other hand, twelve hour working shift can be tiring for administrative staffs. Nonetheless, it does not comes with several challenges as it incorporates a well-balanced workloads and frequent rest pauses. Findings: From the above discussion, it is ascertained that extended working hours comes with several health issues faced by employees. Fatigue is one of the common complain among the workers who are working for abnormal hours. It is noticeable after the night shift of workers and least on the afternoon shift. This particular issue faced by workers is somewhat difficult to measure Secondly, it will lower efficient performance of employees due to long-term impact on health. In this particular section, the application of concept of ergonomics is discussed in relation to challenges faced due to shift in working hours. Another issue that is faced by workers is that twenty hour working shift has a relevant intervene with family and social life. This would result in psychosomatic disorders and psychological stress. Great difficulties would be faced by warehouse staff of organization in combing working and social times (Haslam and Waterson 2013). In relation to complexity of personal duties, family t ime, coordination of workers with family time table will become difficult. Ergonomics or factor of human application have been ascertained to positively affect the performance of workers, satisfaction and health and safety of workers. This would impact the overall performance of organization in both direct and indirect way. Ergonomics is a scientific approach that is related to the understanding of interaction among human and other elements of a system. Organization practicing ergonomics contributes to evaluation and designing of tasks jobs, environment, system and products so that it is compatible with the abilities, needs and limitation of people. Implementation of criteria of ergonomics would help in minimizing the adverse impact of change in shifting schedules and leading to better place for working (Hignett et al. 2013). The schedule of shifting is required to be designed in accordance with ergonomic criteria. From the discussion of this particular section, it is inferred that organisation has difficulties in measuring issues such as fatigue. Fatigue that are caused to workers due to long hour of works can be measures using some methods or tools of analysis such as Cognitive testing, multi latency test and Epworth Sleepiness scale. It would help in minimizing the adverse impacts of shift schedule by limiting the impacts, lessening the stress, avoiding consecutive number of prolonged night shifts, minimizing accumulation of sleep deficits, circadian disruption and fatigue. Excess of consecutive working days and prolonged working hours are connected with increased risk of ergonomics related injuries. Ergonomics issues is associated with sleep deprivation and lost workdays due to this continuous work shift. Sleep deprivation might lead to damage in terms of ligament, muscle and tendon injury. This leads to increased risk of ergonomic injuries. It has been found from previous research that twe lve hour working shift is not regarded as inherently damaging health and employees and they are not regarded as dangerous for employees health. Excess working hours is shouldered injuries due to unsatisfactory leisure time (Franssila et al. 2016). Some of the guidelines according to ergonomics for designing the shifting system are as follows: Slowly rotating system is not considered better compared to quickly rotating shifting system as they assist in minimizing the cumulative sleep deficit extent and have less interference with circadian rhythms (Young et al. 2015). Permanent night shift of twenty four hour shift is permitted only for warehouse staffs and they should be guaranteed with highest level of safety by making complete adjustment to night work schedule. Pro longed working shift needs to be contemplated when there is suitability in the work load and workers should be provide with sufficient rest. Shift system is designed in such a way that helps in minimizing the exposure to toxic substances and fatigue accumulation. In order to meet preferences and needs of workers, organization should promote flexible working arrangement. For reduction of truncation of sleep, organisation should avoid early start of morning shift and consequently the reduction of risk of errors and fatigue. The shifting system soul be regular and free weekend should be guaranteed and this would assist warehouse staffs in conveniently enjoying their leisure and social time. There should be clockwise rotation as it is parallel to endogenous circadian rhythm and it helps in avoiding quick changeovers and leading to immediate recovery by allowing longer rest periods. The balance in work life for employees working in organization is placing increased importance in ergonomics. This concept consider accounting for both diversities among individuals and group of workers. There are many effective guidelines for instilling practice of ergonomics within the working environment. Improvement in implementation of ergonomics will help in reducing the risk related to injury of occupation. Practice of ergonomics provide with positive benefits such as improved health and keeping workers healthy (Martin et al. 2013). Now, discussing the concepts of ergonomics in relation to lower worker efficiency. It is done in terms of increased productivity resulting from increasing effectiveness of workers or warehouse and administrative staffs. Workers are able to accomplish their tasks efficiently when they have more energy and feel stronger in the environment where they are working. Positive ergonomic techniques is employed by organization is establishment of rules that helps in facilitating health of employees (Yang et al. 2015). Risks of employee injuries and health issues can be reduced by Amazing Suppliers by adhering to the principles of ergonomics. Productivity among warehouse and administrative staffs of organization will be improved by opting for best ergonomic solution. Workstation will be made more efficient by designing job in good posture and better heights and reaches. Comfort level of employees is considerably influenced by the office ergonomics. Application of this concept helps in designing job in such a way that work is safer and efficient (Falzon 2014). Workers and staffs of Amazing Suppliers would have increased productivity and would feel the comfort in performing jobs by implementing solution of ergonomics. Measuring of various health issues faced by employees due to long working hours: Epworth sleepiness scale- It is a self-rating scale on eight items and helps in assessing the likelihood of employees of falling sleep. The likelihood of falling asleep is rated on scale ranging from 0 to 3. 3 indicates high chance of falling asleep and 0 indicates no chance of falling asleep. Greater sleep propensity is reflected by higher scores and total score ranges from 0 to 24. Employees complaining excessive day time sleepiness would score 12 or higher. In this way, Amazing Suppliers can the measure the fatigue of employees (Walker et al. 2017). Multi latency test- Multi latency test is a tool of diagnosing sleep disorder. This particular tool is used in measuring sleep latency that is time elapsed from the start of nap during day time to the first sign of sleep. The idea that forms the basis of sleep is that people will asleep faster when they are feeling sleepy. This test is used for making distinction between excessive day time sleepiness and physical tiredness. This test is applied in working environment for assessing the readiness of person to fall asleep in a conducive setting. Multi latency test helps in measuring the fatigue level of employees (Hanson 2013). Cognitive testing methods- Cognitive testing is a psychological testing that helps in evaluation of functional capacity of an individual employees. This particular testing relies on measuring performance of tasks for assessing cognitive functioning and this leads to severity of cognitive impairment establishment. It is the primary way for establishing severity of cognitive impairment (Dekker et al. 2013). Employment of all the measures of testing would help organization in evaluating the impact of the shifting hours on wellbeing and performance of employees. Discussion of solutions and anticipated challenges: Solution for all the anticipated challenge faced due to shifting of working hours: Fatigue- Heavy physical work helps in reducing fatigue among employees. Warehouse staffs would be working for twenty four hours that will increase chance of fatigue. Engaging workers in heavy physical work would leads to fatigue reduction (Zink and Fischer 2013). Organization of physical work should be done or organized in a way that will help to minimize the fatigue faced by workers. Sleep disorder-Organization does not have any magic formulae for making workers fall asleep and one formula might work for one person and might not for another person. Workers working throughout day and night are provided with some useful proposals to help them in curbing sleeping problems. Reduction of outside noise and light by using dark and heavy curtains, sound proof doors, air conditioners and windows. Making use of individual headphones on radio and televisions and silent answering phone machines Workers should be provided with the option of moving towards the quieter living areas if the existing living area if nosier. Warehouse staffs should be encouraged not to consume alcohol so that they are able to asleep faster and should give them time to slow down after work. Optimizing shifting system- There is not optimal shift timing and the managers in organization is required to seek the best compromise between needs of workers and demand of enterprise. The decision of shifting system should be founded on the scientific recommendations for shift system designing. For the acceptance of new shift system, one of the factor that is of particular importance is implementation strategy. Amazing Suppliers should incorporate the guideline for implementing new working arrangement. Comparison of normal person and person working for longer hours: Normal person Person working for longer hours Normal persons working in organization does not face any issue of sleep deficit and fatigue. Person working for longer hours faces several health issues such as fatigue and tiredness. This causes an increased need for sleep among workers. Workers working on normal shift timings does not face health issues relating to sleep and appetite. Twenty four hour shift would lead to change in timing and meal sequence and there is a high probability that these workers would suffer from appetite disturbances (Tillman et al. 2016). Normal working hours helps in maintaining efficiency and productivity level among employees. This helps in enhancing the performance of employees. Workers working for prolonged hours is associated with lower level of productivity and efficiency. This ultimately lower the performance of employees within organization. Plan to roll out new working hours for warehouse staffs: Implementation of procedures for introducing new shifting hours that is working for twenty four hours would adversely affect the warehouse staffs. The adverse impact would be in terms of health, performance and productivity of employees. In this regard, amazing suppliers have to roll out new procedures as a response to negative or adverse impact on warehouse staffs. Procedures should be regarding the minimizing the adverse impact on staffs and increasing productivity by rolling out new working hours. The roll out of new working procedures should be structured in such a way that health of workers are not compromised (Thatcher 2013). It is suggested by growing evidence that twenty four hour working is bad for health and safety of employees. Fatigue workers are more likely to commit errors and mistakes that may have serious repercussions on individual employees and organization as a whole. New working hours should provide guidelines for shift design and working environment. Shifting design guidelines: Amazing Suppliers should plan an appropriate and varied workload Avoiding permanent night shifts by offering warehouse staffs a choice of rotating or permanent shifts. Organization should either adopt a forward rotating shift or either rotating shift every two to three shifts. Workers should be encouraged to take regular breaks and allow them to take choice when they need it. Twenty four hour working should be not on continuous basis and there should be the adoption of switching between shifts by allowing them two night full sleep. Shift schedule should incorporate building of regular free weekends. In the extended case, shift timing for warehouse workers and administrative should be limited to twelve hour shift. This can be extended to extra working hours when there is increased demand for work. Needs of vulnerable workers should be considered such as ageing workers, expecting mothers and young workers. Working environmental guidelines: Warehouse staffs should be provided with similar facilities as those available during day time workers such as administrative staffs. Workers should be provided with the opportunities of training and development and canteen facilities (Kroemer and Kroemer 2016). Amazing suppliers should ensure that lighting and temperature during night is preferably adjustable and appropriate. Information and training on riskiness of shift work should be provided so that management and supervisors are able to identify the problems. Workers working for prolonger hours including night shift should be provided with health assessments. Organization should ensure that surrounding and workplace is safe, secure and well monitored. During period of low alertness, there should be increased supervision. Conclusion From the analysis of the given case study on Amazing Suppliers that is facing with the increased demand of their products, is opting for twenty four working for warehouse staffs. It can be inferred from the analysis of the given case that introduction of twenty four working would have adverse effect on health and wellbeing of employees. Working procedures roll out should be designed in such a way that health of workers are not compromised at any cost as it is the society and organization that would bear the costs. Introduction of twelve hour working shift for administrative staffs does not have much impact on their health issues as there would not be disruption in their work life balance. Adverse impact on employees relating to health issues such as fatigue can be measured by the implementation of analytical tool and tests such as cognitive testing and multi-lateral testings. Amazing Suppliers should design their roll out structures in such a way that health of employees are not comp romised. References list: Broberg, O. and Hall-Andersen, L.B., 2014. Integrating ergonomics into engineering design: The role of objects. Dekker, S.W., Hancock, P.A. and Wilkin, P., 2013. Ergonomics and sustainability: towards an embrace of complexity and emergence. Ergonomics, 56(3), pp.357-364. Falzon, P. ed., 2014. Constructive ergonomics. CRC Press. Franssila, H., Okkonen, J. and Savolainen, R., 2016. Developing measures for information ergonomics in knowledge work. Ergonomics, 59(3), pp.435-448. Hanson, M.A., 2013. Green ergonomics: challenges and opportunities. Ergonomics, 56(3), pp.399-408. Haslam, R. and Waterson, P., 2013. Ergonomics and sustainability. Hignett, S., Carayon, P., Buckle, P. and Catchpole, K., 2013. State of science: human factors and ergonomics in healthcare. Ergonomics, 56(10), pp.1491-1503. Kroemer, A.D. and Kroemer, K.H., 2016. Office Ergonomics: Ease and Efficiency at Work. CRC Press. Martin, K., Legg, S. and Brown, C., 2013. Designing for sustainability: ergonomicscarpe diem. Ergonomics, 56(3), pp.365-388 Thatcher, A., 2013. Green ergonomics: definition and scope. Ergonomics, 56(3), pp.389-398. Tillman, B., Tillman, P., Rose, R.R. and Woodson, W.E., 2016. Human Factors and Ergonomics Design Handbook Third Edition. McGraw Hill Professional. Walker, G.H., Salmon, P.M., Bedinger, M. and Stanton, N.A., 2017. Quantum ergonomics: shifting the paradigm of the systems agenda. Ergonomics, 60(2), pp.157-166. Wilson, J.R., 2014. Fundamentals of systems ergonomics/human factors. Applied ergonomics, 45(1), pp.5-13. Yang, Y., Thomas, K., Stumpf, T., Starr, C., Le, Q.V. and Johnson, A.E., The Boeing Company, 2015. Ergonomics awareness chairs, systems, and methods. U.S. Patent Application 14/866,569. Young, M.S., Brookhuis, K.A., Wickens, C.D. and Hancock, P.A., 2015. State of science: mental workload in ergonomics. Ergonomics, 58(1), pp.1-17. Zink, K.J. and Fischer, K., 2013. Do we need sustainability as a new approach in human factors and ergonomics?. Ergonomics, 56(3), pp.348-356.

Optimistic Ideas Of The Enlightenment Essays -

Optimistic Ideas Of The Enlightenment 1. To what extent did the Enlightenment express optimistic ideas in eighteenth century Europe? Illustrate your answer with references to specific individuals and their works. (1998, #5) During the eighteenth century, Europeans experienced the dawning of an age of knowledge, reasoning, and of great scientific achievements. Their views toward new discoveries and advancements were optimistic. People began to turn to science for a better understanding of their world and their society. Literature and essays were commonly used to express their hopes for further developments in society, politics, economy, and education. I. Individuals A. John Locke 1) Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) a) Regarded the human mind of a person as a blank slate. b) Did not believe in intuition or theories of innate conceptions 2) Two Treatise of Government. a) Attacked the theory of divine right of Kings. b) Argued that sovereignty did not reside in the state but with the people. 3) Some thoughts concerning education. a) Recommended practical learning to prepare people b) Locke's curriculum included conversational learning of foreign languages, especially French, mathematics, history, physical education, and games. B. Rene Descartes 1) Descartes's philosophy, sometimes called Cartesianism. a) Elaborate explanations of a number of physical phenomena. 2) Physiology a) Part of human blood was a subtle fluid, that he called animal spirits. 3) Study of Optics a) Fundamental law of reflection: that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. b) Paved the way for the udulatory theory of light. 4) Mathematics a) Systematization of analytic geometry. b) First mathematician to attempt to classify curves according to the types of equations that produce them. c) Made contributions to the theory of equations. d) First to use the last letters of the alphabet to designate unknown quantities and the first letters to designate known ones. e) Invented the method of indices (as in x2) to express the powers of numbers. f) Formulated the rule for finding the number of positive and negative roots for any algebraic equation. C. Sir Isaac Newton 5) Mathematics a) Calculus: Generalized methods being used to draw tangents to curves and to calculate the area swept by curves 6) Optics a) Opticks: Sunlight is a heterogeneous blend of different rays?each of which represents a different color -and that reflections and refractions cause colors to appear by separating the blend into its components. b) Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica 7) Also showed interest in alchemy, mysticism, and theology D. Voltaire (Francois Marie Arouet) 1) La Henriade (The Henriad) 2) Two essays, one on epic poetry and the other on the history of civil wars in France. 3) Lettres Philosophiques (The Philosophical Letters, 1734) 1. A covert attack upon the political and ecclesiastical institutions of France. 4) ?lements de la philosophie de Newton (Elements of the Philosophy of Newton) 5) Po?me de Fontenoy (1745), describing a battle won by the French over the English during the War of the Austrian Succession. 6) Si?cle de Louis XIV, a historical study of the period of Louis XIV. 7) Essai sur l'histoire g?n?rale et sur les moeurs et l'esprit des nations (Essay on General History and on the Customs and the Character of Nations, 1756) a. Decries supernaturalism and denounces religion and the power of the clergy, although he makes evident his own belief in the existence of God. 8) Le d?sastre de Lisbonne (The Lisbon Disaster, 1756); a number of satirical and philosophical novels 9) He rejected everything irrational and incomprehensible and called upon his contemporaries to act against intolerance, tyranny, and superstition. E. Denis Diderot 1) Pens?es philosophiques (1746), which stated his deist philosophy. 2) Encyclop?die ou dictionnaire raisonn? des sciences, des arts et des metiers, which is usually known as the Encyclop?die a) French translation of the English Cyclopaedia by Ephraim Chambers b) Used the Encyclop?die as a powerful propaganda weapon against Ecclesiastical authority and the superstition, conservatism, and semifeudal social forms of the time. 3) La religieuse (The Nun, 1796), an attack on convent life. 4) Le neveu de Rameau (1805; translated as Rameau's Nephew) F. Jean Jacques Rousseau 1) French philosopher, social and political theorist, musician, botanist, and one of the most eloquent writers of the Age of Enlightenment.) 2) Discourse on the Origin of Inequality Among Mankind 3) Expounded the view that science, art, and social institutions have corrupted humankind and that the natural, or primitive, state is morally superior to the civilized state 4) The Social Contract 5) Developed a case for civil liberty and helped prepare the ideological background

What is an Unreliable Narrator Definition and 6 Real Examples

What is an Unreliable Narrator Definition and 6 Real Examples What is an Unreliable Narrator: Definition and Examples In literature, an unreliable narrator is a character who tells a story with a lack of credibility. There are different types of unreliable narrators (more on that later), and the presence of one can be revealed to readers in varying ways - sometimes immediately, sometimes gradually, and sometimes later in the story when a plot twist leaves us wondering if we’ve maybe been a little too trusting.While the term â€Å"unreliable narrator† was first coined by literary critic Wayne C. Booth in his 1961 book, The Rhetoric of Fiction, it’s a literary device that writers have been putting to good use for much longer than the past 80 years. For example, "The Tell-Tale Heart" published by Edgar Allan Poe in 1843 utilizes this storytelling tool, as does Wuthering Heights, published in 1847.But wait, is any narrator really reliable?This discussion can lead us down a proverbial rabbit hole. In a sense, no, there aren’t any 100% completely reliable narrators. The  "Rashomon Effect† tells us that our subjective perceptions prohibit us from ever having a totally clear memory of past events. If each person subjectively remembers something that happened, how do we know who is right? "Indeed, many writers have used the Rashomon Effect to tell stories from multiple first-person perspectives - leaving readers to determine whose record is most believable." (Check out As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner for an example).For the purpose of this article, however, we will refer to narrators who are purposefully unreliable for a specific narrative function. How to write an unreliable narrator that has us on our toes and reading between the lines. Literary function of an unreliable narratorFiction that makes us question our own perceptions can be powerful. An unreliable narrator can create a lot of grey areas and blur the lines of reality, allowing us to come to our own conclusions.Fallible storytellers can also create tension by keeping readers on their toes - wondering if there’s more under the surface, and reading between the lines to decipher what that is. Unreliable  narrators can make for intriguing, complex characters: depending on the narrator’s motivation for clouding the truth, readers may also feel more compelled to keep reading to figure out why the narrator is hiding things.Finally, all unreliable narrators are first-person: they live in the world of the story and will have an inherent bias or perhaps even an agenda. While you may find an unreliable narrator who's written in the second-person or third-person point of view, this is generally rare.PRO-TIP: If you'd like to see the different point of views in action, check out this post that has 50+ point of view examples.Types of unreliable narratorsJust like trying to classify every type of character would be an endless pursuit, so is trying to list every type of unreliable narrator. That said, we've divided these questionable raconteurs into three general types to better understand how they work as a literary device.1) Deliberately Unreliable: Narrators who are aware of their deceptionThis type of narrator is intentionally lying to the reader because, well, they can. They have your attention, the point of view is theirs, and they’ll choose what to do with it, regardless of any â€Å"responsibility† they might have to the reader. (The film adaptation of Room, image: Universal Pictures)Forrest Gump by Winston Groom Forrest is another example of a narrator who’s not deliberately unreliable in order to pull the wool over the readers’ eyes or to â€Å"save face.† From the outset, we are aware that Forrest doesn’t comprehend things like the â€Å"average† person does, and we’re aware that we might not be able to take everything he says at face value. This is confirmed when Forrest begins detailing his life, which is peppered with stories about major events from history that he was apparently intimately involved in. We can’t be certain that he’s not telling the truth, but it would be quite the life if he is. Six examples of unreliable narrators and how to write your own fallible storyteller. An unreliable narrator breaks the conventional relationship of trust between a reader and a storyteller. However, the key is that you don’t want to shatter that trust entirely, because you’re likely to lose the reader. Ensure your unreliable narrator has a clear purpose for being unreliable, employ just enough mist around the narrator’s accounts to put question marks in our minds, give us the underlying sense that there’s more to the story, and you’ll be able to foster a connection between the reader and narrator that has the pages of your book flipping.Who are some of your favorite unreliable narrators from literature? Have you ever tried writing one yourself? Leave any thoughts or questions in the comments below!

Writing Letters in Japanese - Format and Tips

Writing Letters in Japanese - Format and Tips Today, it is possible to communicate with anyone, anywhere in the world, instantly by email. However, it doesnt mean that the need to write letters has disappeared. In fact, many people still enjoy writing letters to family and friends. They also love receiving them and thinking of them when they see the familiar handwriting. In addition, no matter how much technology progresses, Japanese New Years cards (nengajou) will most likely always be sent by mail. Most Japanese people would probably not be upset by grammatical errors or incorrect usage of keigo (honorific expressions) in a letter from a foreigner. They will be happy just to receive the letter. However, to become a better student of Japanese, it will be useful to learn basic letter-writing skills. Letter Format The format of Japanese letters is essentially fixed. A letter can be written both vertically and horizontally. The way you write is mainly personal preference, though older people tend to write vertically, especially for formal occasions. Opening Word: The opening word is written at the top of the first column.Preliminary Greetings: They are usually seasonal greetings or to inquire about the addressees health.Main Text: The main text starts in a new column, one or two spaces down from the top. The phrases like sate or tokorode are often used to start the text.Final Greetings: They are mainly wishes for the health of the addressee.Closing Word: This is written at the bottom of the next column after the final greetings. Since opening words and closing words come in pairs, make sure to use the appropriate words.Date: When you write horizontally, Arabic numbers are used to write the date. When writing vertically, use kanji characters.Writers Name.Addressees Name: Make sure to add sama or sensei (teachers, doctors, lawyers, Diet members, etc.) to the addressees name, depending on which is proper.Postscript: When you need to add a postscript, start it with tsuishin. It is not appropriate to write postscripts for a letter to superiors or a formal letter. Addressing Envelopes Needless to say, it is rude to write the addressees name incorrectly. Make sure to use the correct kanji characters.Unlike addresses in the west, which usually start with the addressees name and end with the zip or postal code, A Japanese address starts with prefecture or city and end with the house number.The postal code boxes are printed on most envelopes or postcards. Japanese postal codes have 7 digits. You will find seven red boxes. Write the postal code in the postal code box.The addressees name is in the center of the envelope. It should be slightly larger than the characters that are used in the address. Make sure to add sama or sensei to the addressees name depending on which is proper. When you write a letter to an organization, onchuu is used.The writers name and address are written at the back of the envelope, not on the front. Writing Postcards The stamp is put on the top left. Although you can write either vertically or horizontally, the front and the back should be in the same format. Sending a Letter from Overseas When you send a letter to Japan from overseas, romaji is acceptable to use when writing the address. However, if possible, it is better to write it in Japanese.

Religion and Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Religion and Society - Essay Example In the long list of the existing faiths, the Abrahamic religions enjoy unique and distinctive place in their nature and scope. The number and proportion of these faiths dominate in the world, as over half of the total world population consists of the followers of these three faiths. There are almost 13.3 million Jews (0.23% of the world population), most of which live in the USA, UK, Canada, South Africa and Israel. (LeElef, 2011) Similarly, there are 2.1 billion Christians, while 1.34 billion Muslims, i.e. approximately 33.1% and 21% of the world population respectively. (Quoted in adherents.com) Judaism, Christianity and Islam are viewed to be the Abrahamic religions due to the very reality that they follow almost one and the same mythology and religious belief systems. All these three religions have developed faith in monotheism, and unconditionally believe that Almighty God is regulating all the affairs of the world. They also share the concepts of angels, satanic forces, heaven, hell, the Resurrection Day, reincarnation and concept of rewards and punishments in their fold. Moreover, their Holy Scriptures i.e. the Holy Torah, Bible and the Holy Qur’an also share Adam’s creation, dwelling and expulsion from the Eden Garden; they also appear to be in consensus that Satan seduced the first parents of humanity, and led them to taste the fruit of the Forbidden Tree. Since then Satan and his accomplices rebel angels have been at war with the descendants of Adam and Eve from the time of their birth and blessings bestowed upon them by the Lord. Their Holy Scriptures also present almost the same description of the Noah’s Great Deluge, Abraham’s holy life, and the tales of the holy prophets including Jacob, Job, Joseph, Moses, David and the latter holy personalities. Somehow, they also observe imperative differences with one another in their fold; as the Jews do not consider Jesus and Muhammad as the prophets of God, and the Jews and Chris tians refuse to accept and admit the Holy Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon both of him) as the holy messenger sent by the same God, Who had appointed the earlier prophets for the guidance of humanity at large. The Jews did not view Jesus as the son of the Holy Virgin Mary, and blasphemously declare him as the son of some Joseph, to whom they maintain the belief that Mary was married. Consequently, the followers of all the three Abrahamic faiths have been at daggers drawn for centuries, and even seek the support of infidels and pagans in order to crush one another at any cost. The intensity of hatred among these religions has cost thousands of precious lives, and still rivalry between them seeks no ending altogether. By minutely studying and making comparison among the Leviticus 19 from the Old Testament, the Sermon on the Mount by Jesus Christ and the Last Sermon by the Holy Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), it becomes evident that their teachings appear to be the source of one a nd the same light, and also focus upon the same beliefs including worship of One God, obeying the parents, practicing nobility, chastity and graciousness to all humans without discrimination, paying charity, avoiding harm to others and looking after the fellow beings etc. However, instead of complying with the commands of their Scriptures, the followers of

Research on Tenured Teachers in the School System Paper

On Tenured Teachers in the School System - Research Paper Example Yet another essential detail to be considered is delivered through the understanding of cost as a relative good. Teachers with good reputation and solid experience are often expensive, which can be regarded by school administration as a shortcoming. Tenure protects experienced teachers from being dismissed for this reason. On the other hand, this same issue of protection becomes the primary disadvantage of tenure when doubts of the teacher’s competence raise. Due to tenure, it might become a problem to fire such a teacher without primarily addressing a lot of bureaucratic issues at hand. Moreover, another disadvantage that should be addressed here is that undergoing the legislatively fixed procedure of firing a teacher is costly and thus a lot of institutions might ignore the necessity of dismissing a teacher based on this consideration alone. In order to avoid this problem, some institutions are prone to secrecy by providing a teacher to dismiss certain sum of money (Mathis, 2010). This allows the schools to avoid disclosure and the expensive, long and difficult process of firing a tenured teacher. There is a set of other pros and cons that should be considered when talking about teacher tenure. Among the pros, there is a notion that tenure is actually quite a useful and beneficial instrument when used correctly (McGuinn, 2010, p. 26). Tenure can create the environment that allows the teachers to improve as it creates healthy competition and motivates teachers without tenure to work harder to get it.

The French and Indian war Essay Example for Free

The French and Indian war Essay The French and Indian war which took place from 1754 to 1763 was fought between the French, American Indians and Great Britain. Contrary to what the title might imply the French and Indian war was not a battle fought between the French and Indian but a war fought against the British with the French and American Indians as allies. This war also goes by the name of the Seven Years’ War as it was part of the Seven Year’s war that also took place throughout Europe and Asia (Anderson, F. , 747). The main conflict over the start of the war was an expansion of territory, both New England, under British rule and New France, under French rule, wanted to expand their territory. The outcome of this war was highly important to the forming of the United States as France ceded all of its territory to the east of the Mississippi river including French Canada to the British, left Great Britain in so much debt it raised colonial taxes, and trained future military leaders that the conclusion of the French and Indian War lay the seeds for what would ultimately result in the American Revolution and the formation of the United States of America. This war is considered to be the last major war between, France, Great Britain the Native Americans. Unlike previous wars this siege began on American soil and moved its way into Europe. The Native Americans did fight on both sides but they are primarily considered to have allied with the French. It was during this war that many of the future leaders of the American Revolution, such as George Washington, would fight ironically for Great Britain. As most wars in this time period occurred over the acquisition of land or expansion of territory. Due to Britain’s strong Navy the British were able to colonize much of the Eastern Seaboard as they had superior ability to transport supplies as well as colonists. British claims to North American soil came from royal grants that had no definite boundaries towards the west (Asimov, I. , 174-175). The French additionally wanted to expand their territory and used Robert de LaSalle’s exploration to claim the Mississippi river and its surrounding basin for the French. This also would include what is known as the Ohio River Valley basin (Anderson, F. , 2005, 9-10). Both countries wanted to expand their hold over the land for the natural resources available including fur trading, fertile soil for farming, control of important fishing grounds and other trades that contributed to economic stimulus. The British colonists also feared the French’s influence on religion. British subjects were primarily protestant and the French were Roman Catholic and had many active Missions within North America. A French control of North America would provide a threat to the British colonist’s religious beliefs and like-wise the French feared the British rule as under British law Catholics were still persecuted. (Anderson, F. , 2005, 85) Though fighting in North American finished in 1760 the actual end of the war was not until 1763 with the signing of the Treaty of Paris and the Treaty of Hubertusburg. France lost all of its territory in North American East of the Mississippi river, including Canada, and retained two small islands off of Newfoundland. France regained the two Caribbean Islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe, previously occupied by the British. Spain gained Louisiana as compensation for losing Florida to the British as well as Cuba and Manila. There was also many other territorial shifts throughout Asia as British regained control of India and Sumatra as an example. The outcome of this was the key that set events into motion for the future formation of the United States of America. (Marston. , D. , 84) Great Britain was now in control of the majority of North America. But the war and resulting treaty had left enormous debts as France had traded French Canada for the Caribbean islands. The islands provided a large economic value as they were a large source of sugar and being small islands much easier to defend. Great Britain chose to pay off its debts from tax money collected from the colonies. The end of the French control in North America also influenced the start of the American Revolution as it united the colonists to focus on one enemy, namely the British instead of having to worry about additional conflict. The increase in taxes as well as the withdrawal of French rule in North American would prove fuel for increasing conflicts between the colonies and Great Britain and ultimately result in the American Revolution and the formation of the United States or America. (Anderson, F. , 2005, 242-250) It should also be noted that many of the American Revolutions military leaders participated in the French and Indian War. George Washington commanded troops at the first confrontation of the French and Indian war were he was sent to negotiate boundaries with the French at Fort Duquesne, currently Pittsburgh. A skirmish occurred in which a French officer was killed and added weight for the French to resist (Ellis, J. , 5). Additional Revolutionary war heroes served under the great general Edward Braddock during the French and Indian War,; Brigadier General and Adjutant General Horatio Gates, Captain Daniel Morgan of â€Å"Morgan’s Sharpshooters† rifle company, and Major General Charles Lee of the Continental Army to name but a few (Higginbotham, D). It is possible that without the French and Indian War the United States of America would not be what it is today. The French and Indian war directly resulted in partitioning North America in a way the resulted in what is known as eastern United States over one rule, the British. It resulted in an increase on taxes which is a direct precursor to the American Revolution as increased taxes stemmed various rebellious demonstrations most notably the Boston Tea Party. The French and Indian war removed a potential threat of the French from colonist’s minds, allowing them to completely focus on the British and experience in the army during the French and Indian war produced great revolutionary leaders like George Washington. Without the French and Indian war it is doubtful weather these events would have occurred which would have culminated in the formation of the United States of America. Without the French and Indian War George Washington might have just been a farmer and the United States might not have become independent. Who knows the United States under British rule might have resulted, only stretching to the Mississippi and another country might have formed, perhaps under Spanish rule to the West. Bibliography: Anderson, F., Crucible of War: The Seven Years War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766. New York: Knopf, 2000, page 747 Anderson, F. , The War that Made America, Viking Penguin, 2005, pages 9-10, Asimov. , I. , The Shaping of North America. , Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1973, pages 174-175 Ellis, J. , His Excellency George Washington. New York: Vintage Books, A Division of Random House, Inc. , 2004, page 5 Higginbotham, D. Daniel Morgan: Revolutionary Rifleman. University of North Carolina Press, 1961 Marston, D. The French-Indian War 1754-1763. Osprey Publishing, 2002, page 84

Rousseau and the Positive Theory of Liberty Essays -- Philosophy

Liberty impacts two main areas of political thought; the state of nature and the social contract. This essay will examine wither or not it is proper to characterize Jean Jacque Rousseau as holding a positive theory of liberty. To determine to what extends this is true the following areas must be taken into account and explored; the definitions of liberty and freedom, Isaiah Berlin’s concept of positive and negative liberty, Rousseau understands of Liberty and also why Rousseau’s theory can be characterised as positive liberty. The main argument of this essay is that Rousseau does hold a positive theory of liberty. Jean Jacque Rousseau was born on the 28th June 1712 and died on the 2nd July 1778. Rousseau was a major Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of 18th-century during the Romanticism era. His political philosophy was heavily influenced by the French Revolution and the American Revolution and also influenced his overall development of modern political, sociological and educational thought. Some of Rousseau’s famous works include the Social Contract or Du contrat social (1762) and Emile (1762). Firstly before establishing withers or not Rousseau’s theory of liberty is characterized as positive it important to begin defining what Liberty actually is. The Oxford dictionary defines liberty as ‘the state of being free within society from oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one’s behavior or political views’ (Oxford Dictionaries ). Isaiah Berlin (1909-97) argues that there are two different concepts of liberty: negative and positive. He states the negative liberty is ‘namely freedom from constraint or interface’ (Warburton, 2004, p. 232) or in other words absence of coercion, barriers, restraint or obstacl... ...rieved 12 2010, 9, from Oxford Dictionaries : http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_gb0315030#m_en_gb0315030 (n.d.). Retrieved 12 2010, 9, from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/liberty-positive-negative/ Berlin, I. (1969). Two Concepts of Liberty. In Four Essays on Liberty. London: Oxford University Press. Haddock, B. (2008 ). A History of Political Thought . Cambridge: Polity . Replogle, R. (1989). Recovering the Social Contract. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc. Rousseau, J. J. (1923). The Social Contract and Discourses translated with an Introduction by G.D. H. Cole . Londan and Toronto: J.M Dent and Sons. Shklar, J. (1969). Men and Citizens: A study of Rousseau's social theory. Cambridge: Cambridge UNiversity Press. Warburton, N. (2004). Philosoph: Basic Reading Second Edition . New York : Routledge .

Misrepresentation in Law

CHAPTER EIGHT MISREPRESENTATION A misrepresentation is an untrue statement, which induces the other party to enter into the contract. A misrepresentation may be fraudulent, negligent misstatement, or wholly innocent. The applicable remedy depends on the nature of the misrepresentation. In order for a representation to amount to an actionable misrepresentation it must be: a)false; b)one of fact as oppose to intention, opinion, or law; c)The statement must be addressed to the party who claims to have been misled; )it must be the chief reason which induced the other party to enter the contract. If the representation that is being challenged satisfies these four requirements, then it is an actionable representation. Statement of Fact or Opinion A statement which is made to the other party that is false and induces him to enter into the contract, this is an actionable misrepresentation. The false statement must be one of fact and not of law because no one can misrepresent the law since ev eryone is presumed to know the law.A statement of opinion is not actionable per se as a misrepresentation because it is not a statement of fact. In Bisset v. Wilkinson, the respondent purchased from the appellant, two plots of land in New Zealand for the purpose of sheep farming. During the negotiations, the appellant told the respondent that, if the place was worked properly, it would carry two thousand sheep. The respondent, it was admitted, bought the place believing that it would carry two thousand sheep.As both parties were aware, the appellant had not and, so far as appeared, no other person had at anytime carried on sheep farming on the land. In an action for rescission for misrepresentation, Sim J. said: In ordinary circumstances, any statement made by any owner who has been occupying his own farm, as to its carrying capacity would be regarded as a statement of fact†¦. This, however, is not such a case †¦ in these circumstances. The plaintiff were not justified in regarding anything said by the defendant as to the carrying capacity as being anything more than an expression of opinion on the subject.Their Lordships concurred in their view on the matter, and therefore held that the purchaser had no right to rescind the contract since an erroneous opinion stated by the party affirming the contract, though it has been relied upon and has induced the contract on the part of the party who seeks rescission, gives no title to relief unless fraud is established. The ratio decindendi of this decision is that the respondent had no previous or present knowledge of the capacity of the land, neither was he an expert in sheep farmingSo in the opinion of the Court the most he could have averred was a mere opinion. However, in certain circumstances, an opinion because it presupposes the possession of certain knowledge, may be an actionable misrepresentation. In Smith v Land and House Property Corporation, the vendor of an hotelier described it as let to a Mr. Frederick Fleck, a most desirable tenant. The tenant was in fact in arrears with his rent. It was held that the statement was not a mere expression of opinion because the vendor was impliedly stating that he has facts, which justifies his opinion.The court deemed the vendor to have knowledge of particular facts; therefore the ‘opinion’ was regarded as a misrepresentation of fact, which induced the other party to enter into the contract. The decision in Bisset’s case was followed in Esso Petroleum Co. Ltd. v. Mardon. Esso’s experienced representative told Mardon that Esso estimated the through-put of petrol on a certain site would reach 200,000 gallons in the third year of operation, and so persuaded Mardon to enter into a tenancy agreement in April 1963 for three years.Mardon did all that could be expected of him as tenant but the site was not good enough to achieve a through-put of more than 10,000 gallons. In July 1964 Mardon gave notice to quit, but Es so granted him a new tenancy at a reduced rent. Mardon continued to lose money and by August 1966 was unable to pay for petrol supplied. Esso claimed possession of the site and the money due. Mardon claimed damages in respect of the representation alleging that it amounted to 1) a warranty, 2) a negligent misrepresentation. On the matter Lord Denning M. R. said that Council for Esso retaliated by citing Bisset v. Wilkinson where the Privy Council said that a statement by a New Zealand farmer that an acre of land† would carry 2000 sheep was only an expression of opinion. He submitted that the forecast here of 200,000 gallons was an expression of opinion and not a statement of fact, and that it could not be interpreted as a warranty or promise. Lord Denning said that he would quite agree with Counsel for Esso that it was not a warranty – in this sense that it did not guarantee that the through-put would be 200,000 gallons.But one party, Esso, has special knowledge and ski ll. It was the yardstick by which they measure the worth of a filling station. They knew the facts. They knew the traffic in the town, they knew the through-put of comparable stations. They had much experience and expertise at their disposal. His Lordship went on to show that Esso was in a much better position than Mr. Mardon and their statement of opinion presupposes that they have knowledge to support the opinion. This is very different to the circumstances in Bisset v.Wilkinson where the land had never been used as a sheep farm and both parties were equally able to form an opinion as to its carrying capacity. The Court, therefore, found that Esso was liable for damages for breach of warranty. Fact and Intention Where a representation merely expresses the intention of one party, under normal circumstances the intention, if it is not fulfilled, is not an actionable representation. However, in some circumstances an expression of intention may be considered a statement of fact. In Ed gington v.Fitzmaurice, Bowen LJ said: â€Å"There must be a misstatement of an existing fact: but the state of a man’s mind is as much a fact as the state of his digestion. † The facts in that case are: The directors of a company invited a loan from the Public and stated that the money would be used to improve the company’s building and to extend the business. The real intention of the directors was to use the money to pay off the company’s existing debts. Their statement of intention was held to be a statement of fact. Can Silence Amount to Misrepresentation?Generally silence is not misrepresentation. Each man must protect his own interest and exercise reasonable caution when entering a contract: Caveat emptor. However, the court may consider certain kinds of silence as misrepresentation. In With v O’Flanagon the defendant wanted to sell his medical practice. The negotiations began January 1 at which time the practice was worth ? 2000. 00 per year . However, the defendant fell ill and by May 1 when the contract of sale was signed, the practice was virtually worthless.It was held that the defendant’s silence in the situation amounted to a misrepresentation. Opportunity to Verify Representation Where the representee is given the opportunity to verify the representation made to him, he may or may not make use of the opportunity. If he chooses to act on the statements made by the representor and the statements turn out to be false he can sue but if he chooses to verify and confirm a statement, which is in fact false, he cannot sue the representor. In Redgrave v. Herd, a man was induced to buy a solicitor’s practice by a misstatement of its value.He was given the opportunity to inspect the books, but he did not. If he had checked the books, he would have found that the practice was over-valued. However, the Court held that the non-use of this opportunity did not vitiate his claim. The Privy Council in Senanayake v. C henq followed this decision. However, when the representee carries out independent investigation to ascertain the accuracy of any statement made to him, though he did not find out the truth, he cannot claim to have been misled because then he would be relying on his own findings or that of his experts.In Atwood v. Small, a vendor offered to sell a mine and made exaggerated claims as to its capacity. The buyer appointed agents to investigate the mines. The agents reported wrongly that the claims were true. The contract of sale was then completed. It was held by the House of Lords that, the buyer’s subsequent action must fail because they have not relied on the vendor’s statement, but on their own independent investigations. Curtis v. Chemical Cleaners misrepresentation. Types of MisrepresentationFraudulent Misrepresentation. Fraud was defined by Lord Herschel in Derry v. Peek as meaning that the representation made is a false representation: 1) Knowingly or 2) Without b elief in its truth or 3) Recklessly, careless whether it is true or false. Fraud must be strictly proven and the burden of proof is high: It requires evidence of actual dishonesty. Negligent Misrepresentation/misstatement. Liability in damages for negligent misrepresentation was created by the decision in Hedley Byrne & Co Ltd. v.Heller & Partner, if there is a special relationship and that the defendant was a skilled professional person acting in the course of his business upon whose advice it is reasonable for the plaintiff to rely. Section 2(1) of the Misrepresentation Ac, 1967, codified this principle. The defendant can escape liability on the section if he can show that he had reasonable grounds for the belief and that he held those beliefs up to the time the contract was made that the facts represented were true. The burden of proof is on the representor.See the judgment of Lord Denning in Esso Petroleum v. Mardon. Seeing that the S. 2 (1) supersedes the Hedley Byrne’s case, it is doubtful whether this additional head of damages would add anything to the existing rights under S. (1). Where a representation becomes a term of the contract, the plaintiff will sue for breach of a contractual term or breach of warranty, not for misrepresentation. Innocent Misrepresentation. Whittington v. Seale-Hayne Types of Remedies An actionable misrepresentation attracts the remedies of rescission and damages.Rescission, providing that none of the bars to rescission are applicable, cancels the contract and restores the parties to the status quo ante. When rescission fails the innocent party will be awarded damages which is a monetary compensation that will put him in the position he would have been in but for the misrepresentation of the representor with whom the innocent party had contracted. Rescission or Cancellation. The right to rescind is the right of a party to have the contract set aside and to be restored to his former position. The contract remains valid unless and until rescinded.Third parties may acquire interest under the contract if the innocent party does not act with promptitude, providing that the innocent party is a bona fide(honest) purchaser for valuable consideration. In Car & Universal Finance v Caldwell, the defendant sold his car on January 12, 1960, to Norris who took it away leaving a deposit of ? 10 and a cheque for ? 965. The cheque was dishonoured when the defendant presented it the following day. He immediately informed the police and the Automobile Association of the fraudulent transaction.Norris subsequently sold the car to a third party who sold it to the plaintiff. The question the Court had to decide was whether the defendant’s conduct and representations on or about January 13 amounted to a rescission of the contract of sale. Lord Denning M. R. held that where a seller of goods had a right to avoid a contract for fraud, he sufficiently exercised his election if, on discovering the fraud, he immediate ly took all possible steps to regain the goods, even though he could not find the purchaser or communicate with him, and the contract was rescinded on January 13.If the innocent party delayed cancelling the contract, any third party who purchased the item bona fide would have acquired a good title to the property and the original owner had no claim to it. See the speech of Lord Wilberforce in Johnson v. Agnew. There are several bars to the right to rescind which may work against the innocent party to the contract. The bars are restitution impossible, third-party rights, affirmation, lapse of time. These are discussed in the paragraphs that follow. Restitution Impossible.When a party rescinds a contract, it must be possible for the Court to restore the two parties to the Status quo ante, to put the parties back in their original position before the contract was made. However, this limitation should not be strictly construed, and the mere fact that the subject matter of the contract m ay have deteriorated before the truth is discovered, is not sufficient to prevent restoration and so destroy the right to rescind a contract. * In Newbigging v. Adam, rescission was granted even though the partnership business was worse than â€Å"worthless†.The facts of that case were â€Å"The plaintiff entered into an agreement with the defendants by which he was admitted as a partner with a manufacturing business and provided ? 10,000 of new capital. He was induced to enter into the agreement by a material innocent misrepresentation as to the capacity of certain machinery. The business failed, and the plaintiff sued for rescission of the agreement for recovery of his capital, and for an indemnity against all claims which might be made against him by virtue of his being a partner.The Court unanimously agreed that he was entitled to the remedy for which he asked. Before the passing of the 1967 Misrepresentation Act, there was a further bar of rescission: if the misrepresen tation was innocent, there could be no rescission of a contract after it has been executed. * Seddon v North East Salt Co. Ltd. The extent of this rule was somewhat uncertain and it was the subject of much discussion, for in many cases the falsity of the misrepresentation cannot be discovered until the contract is executed. However, the Privy Council in Senanayake v. Cheng did not follow the decision. By S. (2), except in the case of fraud, of the 1967 Misrepresentation Act, the Court has a discretion to allow rescission and to award damages in lieu of rescission, and in this way could allow the contract to continue to subsists whether it was executed or not. The act has over rule Seddon’s case, Wilde v. Gibson. * Third-party Rights. As stated above a third party may acquire a good title if the owner of the property did not act speedily to rescind the contract, providing that the third-party has no knowledge of the origin of the property and could not reasonably be expected t o: Car & Universal Finance v.Caldwell. A similar decision was made in Lewis v. Averay: The plaintiff advertised his car for sale. A rogue, posing as the well-known television actor, Richard Greene, called on the plaintiff and offered to buy the car. The plaintiff accepted the order, and the rogue wrote out a cheque, signed it, â€Å"R. A. Greene’. The rogue wished to take away the car at once, but the plaintiff was not willing for him to have it until the cheque had been cleared. At the plaintiff’s request the rogue produced identification that he was R.A Greene in the form of a special pass of admission to Pinewood Studios, bearing the name R. A. Greene’ and an address, a photograph of the rogue, and an official stamp. The plaintiff was satisfied on seeing this pass and allowed the rogue to have the car. The cheque was worthless and the rogue sold the car to the defendant, a music student, who bought is in good faith. The Court of Appeal held the plaintiff int ended to contract with the person before him. The contract was merely voidable for fraud and the defendant, a third party, acquired a good title in the car against the plaintiff.Affirmation of the Contract. If after becoming aware of the misrepresentation the party affirms the contract either by express words or by taking any benefit under the contract, e. g. accepting dividends on shares, or failure to remove his name from the register of shareholders. In Long v. Lloyd the plaintiff was induced to purchase a lorry by the defendant’s representation that it was â€Å"in excellent condition†. On the first journey after the sale, the dynamo broke and the plaintiff noticed several other serious defects.The defendant was informed of these and offered to pay half the cost for the repairs. On the next long journey, the lorry broke down completely and the plaintiff realised that it was in a deplorable condition. He claimed to rescind the contract. The Court held that the secon d journey amounted to an affirmation and therefore the right to rescind was lost. Lapse of Time Under certain circumstances, lapse of time may be deemed to be affirmation, especially if the other party takes a considerably long time to rescind the agreement.However, normally, time does not beginning to run until the plaintiff becomes aware of the misrepresentation. In Leaf v. International Galleries, the plaintiff bought from the defendant a painting of Salisbury Cathedral which the defendant innocently represented to him at the time of the purchase to have been painted by Constable. Five years later, when he tried to sell it, he discovered that was not the case. He brought an action for the rescission of the sale. The Court of appeal held that it was too late to rescind the contract.Damages The remedy of damages, availability or otherwise depends on the nature of the misrepresentation committed fraudulent, innocent, or negligent. In Newbigging v. Adam damages were award for misrepr esentation. In Whittington v. Seale-Hayne, the Court granted the plaintiff an indemnity against some of the lost which he suffered due to innocent misrepresentation. In Hussey v. Eels damages was assessed for negligent misstatement as to the non- existence of subsidence on the property which was the subject of the contract. ——————————————- [ 1 ]. [1927] AC 177 [ 2 ]. ibid at 180 [ 3 ]. (1884) 28 Ch D 7 at 15 [ 4 ]. supra at 191 [ 5 ]. [1976] QB 801 [ 6 ]. supra at 191 [ 7 ]. ibid [ 8 ]. (1885) 2 Ch. D 459 [ 9 ]. [1936] Ch. 575, [1936] 1 All ER 727; Davies v. London and Provincial Marine Insurance Co (1878) 8 Ch. D 469, judgment of Fry J. at 475 [ 10 ]. (1881) 20 Ch. D [ 11 ]. [1965] 3 All ER 296 [ 12 ]. (1838) 6 C L & Fin 232 [ 13 ]. (1889) 14 App. Cas 337 [ 14 ]. [1964] AC 465, [1963] 2 All ER 575, See Mutual Life Citizens Assurance Co v.Evatt [1971] Ac 793, [1971] 1 All ER 156 [ 15 ]. [1976] QB 807, [1986] 2 All ER 8 [ 16 ]. Supra 218 [ 17 ]. [1965] 1 QB 525, [1964] 1 All ER 290 [ 18 ]. [1986] AC 367, [1979] 1 All ER 883 [ 19 ]. (1886) 34 Ch D 582 [ 20 ]. [1905] 1 Ch 326 [ 22 ]. Supra 197 [ 23 ]. (1848) 1 H L Cas 326 [ 24 ]. Supra 195 [ 25 ]. [1975] 1QB 198, [1971] 3 All ER 907 [ 26 ]. [1958] 2 All ER 402, [1958] 1 WLK 753 [ 27 ]. [1950] 2 KB 86, [1957] 1All ER 693 [ 28 ]. Supra 196 [ 29 ]. [1905] 82 CT 49

Reconciliation †Polly Clark Essay

Separation is one of the main themes in the short story. Marriage is very valuable and precious, because it is a promise of an everlasting love between a man and woman. People getting married, but people are also getting divorced as well. A marriage does not always turn out the way people had hoped for, and sometimes they will have to separate. A separation is usually a very emotional phase, especially after a divorce. Separation is a contrast to the title of the short story – reconciliation. Moving on, is also one of the main themes in the text. The husband Vernon have moved on, beside that Laura haven’t. In the text, Vernon seems to be the one, who have the most control over himself and his life. Whereas Laura seems to have mental issues and she isen’t thinking clear. In the short story Reconciliation, written by Polly Clark in 2006, we meet Laura who is floating between marriage and divorce. She is first-person narrator, because we are able to know how she is thinking and feeling, even when she dosen’t know it. Laura had a relationship to Vernon for half of her life. It appears, when Laura knows how her husband used to walk â€Å"His walk, just as I remember, is heavier on the left than the right†. Laura and her husband’s relationship are falling apart. For months she and her husband haven’t spoke a word. There have been months of â€Å"†¦Frozen silence.† When Laura dosen’t knows how to resume their contact, she applies for a job at her husband’s office. Laura is very nervous, and she seems doubtful around her husband Vernon, or Mr. Pringle as he is called in the text, by his employer Janny. This is expressed in her following quotes in the start: â€Å"†¦I have forgotten my shoes†, â€Å"I don’t know if I reply, if I do it is in a whisper†, â€Å"I bite my lip as I reach the desk†. The fact that Laura has forgotten her shoes and wearing the clothes, the clothes she have been sleeping with, shows that she’s not able to think clearly and the fact that she can’t speak clearly, but only whisper when Vernon is around, shows that she’s nervous. It makes her look like she has some smaller mental issues, which is caused because she is losing her husband. Laura feels like she is nothing without her husband. It seems like Laura is more interested of getting her husband back, than he is. She still got feelings for him. â€Å"We began our relationship – half my life ago – in a bar, and those were our best times, telling each other the truths of our lives in the warm light.† And later Laura tells Vernon she have grown some onions and had an interview. â€Å"These are both, technically, lies, but could be true†. Laura misses the times, when she and Vernon told each other the truth. But now, when their relationship is falling apart, she starts to lie. Laura wants her husband back. She can’t recognize Vernon anymore, and it seems that her husband has moved on and dosen’t fell the same way as she does. This is expressed in the text: â€Å"How has he managed to remain himself, to become – dare I say it – even more himself, with not even a scar and even a brand new blue shirt†, â€Å"What do you think about this then? You and me, you and me in a place like this†, â€Å"I hope he realizes how much planning, thought, how much normality it took for me to be here today†. Blue is also a color for wisdom and confidence, in contrast to Laura, who dosen’t have confidence, and dosen’t seem wise. When the narrator, Laura, introduce us to her husband Vernon, she describe him as a turtle without its carapace, which is an example of imagery. The way Vernon looks around the room is described as the way a chameleon look around. â€Å"His eyes flick about the room, an alarmed chameleon.†Another example of imagery in the text is when Laura is going to find matching numbers on the sheet with Janny. There is two numbers or two times, called 22.48 and 22.49. Laura is wondering if they are matching together, because they are â€Å"nearly the same. But still they are so different, they present them self. This can be put into perspective to Laura and Vernon. Laura sees herself, as one individual, but still she is wondering if she matching to Vernon. Laura does still wonder why 22.48 are so narrowly missed being 22.49. Laura asks Janny what if she can’t find the reconciliation on the sheet. Janny tells that they remain unreconciled. Sometimes everything isn’t going to work out the way you wanted it to be. But we have to move on, so everything can be reconciled.

Compare and contrast the codes and conventions of sitcoms Essay Example

Compare and contrast the codes and conventions of sitcoms Essay Example Compare and contrast the codes and conventions of sitcoms Paper Compare and contrast the codes and conventions of sitcoms Paper A Situation comedy or sit-com as we know is based on real life non-fictional events and situations. There are many different elements that make sit-coms what they are. Sit-coms tend to revolve around two basic situations, within these situations, comedy is generated. These situations are usually located at home with family and at work. Some main sitcoms at present are Friends, My family and Alley Mcbeal. The family is portrayed as a stable situation able to bear the outside world because its strength comes from within. Despite the audience expectations a sit-com episode is mostly a self-contained classical narrative and is set in the same way. The settings tend to be interiors; this is usually because it is filmed in front of a live audience so they cant go from place to place. This also keeps down the cost of set construction and location shooting which makes sit-coms so appealing to television companies. The plots also tend to be based around very few characters. The characters themselves tend to be over exaggerated, stereotypical people, typical examples: The smart, witty, sarcastic character e. g. Chandler in Friends, Fraiser and Niles in Fraiser. There are usually un-intelligent and a not so bright, and there is usually somebody attractive whether it is a male or female to appeal to everyone. I will do a comparison of a British and American sitcom and see how their conventions work, based Fawlty Towers and Friends. During the mid 50s rivalry developed between the BBC and the fairly recently launched ITV. ITV was broadcasting the popular American sitcom called I Love Lucy, the BBC soon found that it was loosing viewers to ITV and therefore boosted production of sitcoms that include: Hancocks Half Hour, Dads army, Fawlty Towers, Porridge and many more which are still popular today. I love Lucy sparked off the production off these British sitcoms and maybe if it hadnt been broadcasted here in Britain then probably none of these famous British sitcoms would have been made. These sitcoms, however, differ quite significantly due to the country, which they originate from. The difference is due to the countrys culture and social background; we can explore this by viewing an American sitcom, Friends, and a British sitcom, Fawlty Towers. Fawlty Towers and Friends are two very successful sitcoms but if we investigate further into the two we find that they both have different impacts on the audience as some methods of creating humour differ. One of the main differences of the two, outside of creating humour, is that they are both based in different countries and different times. Friends is based on the youthful, vibrant city of New York, USA based in the late 90s, whereas Fawlty Towers is based in the retired, quiet town of Torquay based in the mid 70s. I will investigate both sitcoms by analysing each using characterisation, types of humour used, plot and mis-en-sci ne. Mis-en-sci ne is looking at how the sitcom is constructed, by setting, props, non-verbal communication and dress codes. Fawlty Towers is based in Torquay and is a hotel run by Basil Fawlty and his wife Sybil Fawlty also two other main characters are Polly and Manual who work at the hotel. Basil is a comic but key character; he plays a vital role in fawlty towers, Basil addresses a sarcastic approach most of the time when he is frustrated, worried or angered; when things do not go his way, and also when talking to people that he considers less respected than him e. g. : Manual, Polly etc. He also has the perfect image of what fawlty towers should be: successful and popular especially with the higher class. This causes him to constantly think about himself and the reputation of himself and the hotel. The humour which basil creates is usually physical; he is a tall man and walks with strides, which makes him stand out from everyone else. Sybil, Basils wife, who seems to be authoritative and firm with Basil this maybe due to the fact that she is usually more friendly and therefore more popular with guests and staff therefore they look up to her, more so than Basil. Basil also may be afraid that she might leave him and to prevent this he tries to be kind and obeys her commands but usually frustration or confusion get in the way which may create humour. Sybil herself is an elegant and well-presented woman, the fact that she is married to Basil, who may be the complete opposite, makes the sitcom more entertaining as it causes great confusion, lack of communication which leads to arguments between the couple which all create humour in different ways. Polly is a young well-mannered girl working temporarily at the hotel. She is polite and acts respectful to guests and staff a lot like Sybil but with a lot less experience of working in a hotel. The fact that she is a lot like Sybil again causes a slight inability to communicate to Basil, as he differs greatly, especially in front of guests, which creates humour. Polly is the youngest in the Fawlty Towers and lacks experience in the Hotel Business because of this she is usually ignored by Basil who considers her to be incapable of thinking of good ideas and doing things no matter how hard she works. Although she is the youngest main character in Fawlty Towers, she is actually not that young compared to Friends. This shows us that Friends is aimed at the youthful generation where as Fawlty Towers is aimed at the older generation. Fawlty Towers produces many different types of humour purely due to the characteristics of the main characters. If one of the characters were taken out of fawlty towers it wouldnt be able to achieve all of the types of humour it currently contains. For example, Basils role in the sitcom is to provide verbal wit, ludicrous and preposterous humour. Without this role its unlikely he could have made Fawlty Towers so popular. The humour used is very corny however is what works to make the audience want more, we hear canned laughter which also takes place a lot in Friends to prove when the audience should laugh and find something funny there is a laughter in the background. Friends is an organic plot. This means that the plots are not in such strict logic or structure, because of this it is apparent that we drop in every week to observe how each character is coping with their private lives and what they do in certain situations. The impression is given that the characters are there all the time but we view them at an unstructured and unedited part of their daily lives. This may be the case with friends but it is not, however, with fawlty towers. In fawlty towers the whole episode is based around a certain event and only, usually, contains one narrative whereas friends contains two or three narratives. In Friends various characters can relate to characters in friends; Joey and maybe Phoebe can relate to Manuel as they all create humour without meaning to. Chandler can relate to Basil as they both create sarcasm, irony and verbal wit therefore creating humour purposefully. Joey is a comic and youthful character as his main role in the sitcom is to create humour. This contrast of characteristics among the characters makes the sitcom more entertaining rather then them all being all the same which would make it less interesting as their lives would be similar. There are no main characters in Friends unlike Fawlty towers where the episode is normally set around Basil. In friends all of the characters are equal, there are exactly three girls and three boys and what one character has another one lacks. For example Joey is not clever but is fashionable and is a womaniser where as Chandler is clever but is not much of a womaniser. Both Friends and Fawlty Towers have the catchy theme tune in the beginning to set the scene, which gets the audience going before they start watching the sitcom. The aim of a sitcom is to make an audience laugh, by using stereotypes the viewer finds the characters funny due to them doing actions or saying something that reminds them of themselves or someone they know. The main contents of a successful sitcom are the characters, the way each character interacts with one another with a sitcom, the audience gets to know the characters, and know what to expect from them. The setting of a sitcom is generally in a similar environment that most people would go to, e. g. Scrubs is based in the workplace, Men Behaving Badly is set in a flat and the characters from Friends either meet up in a cafi or in their apartments.

Biography of James Watt, Modern Steam Engine Inventor

Biography of James Watt, Modern Steam Engine Inventor James Watt (January 19, 1736–August 25, 1819) was a Scottish inventor, engineer, and chemist. He developed a workable steam engine that utilized a separate condenser; this innovation made the steam engine a useful tool for a vast range of uses. In many ways, Watts invention- or rather, his improvement on an earlier invention, the Newcomen steam engine- was the technological impetus behind the Industrial Revolution. Fast Facts: James Watt Known For: Invention of the steam engineBorn: January 19, 1736 in Greenock,  Renfrewshire, Scotland, United KingdomParents: Thomas Watt, Agnes MuirheadDied: August 25, 1819 in  Handsworth, Birmingham, England, United KingdomEducation: Home educatedPublished Works:  A System of Mechanical PhilosophyAwards and Honors: Many streets and schools carry his name; statues of his likeness in Picadilly Gardens and St. Pauls CathedralSpouse(s): Margaret (Peggy) Miller, Ann MacGregorChildren: James Jr., Margaret, Gregory, Janet, AnnNotable Quote: I had gone to take a walk on a fine Sabbath afternoon. I had entered the Green by the gate at the foot of Charlotte  Street and had passed the old washing house. I was thinking upon the engine at the time, and had gone as far as the herds house, when the idea came into my mind...I had not walked  farther  than the Golf  house when the whole thing was arranged in my mind. Early Life James Watt was born on January 19, 1736, in Greenock, Scotland, as the only surviving child of four of James Watt (1699–1737) and Agnes Muirhead (1901–1754). Greenock was a fishing village that during Watts lifetime became a busy town with a fleet of steamships. James Jr.s grandfather Thomas Watt (1642–1734) was a well-known mathematician and local schoolmaster. James Sr. was a prominent citizen of Greenock and a successful carpenter and ships chandler who worked at outfitting ships and working on their instruments, compasses, and quadrants. At various times, James Sr. was also the chief magistrate and treasurer of the town. Education James Watt was intelligent, but because of poor health he was unable to attend school regularly. Instead, he gained the skills he would later need in engineering and tooling by working with his father on carpentry projects. By age 6, James Watt was solving geometrical problems and conducting his earliest investigation into the nature of steam, which involved experimenting with his mothers tea kettle. In boyhood, Watt was an avid reader and found something to interest him in every book that came into his hands. When Watt was finally sent to the village school, his ill health prevented his making rapid progress; it was only when he was 13 or 14 that he began to exhibit his abilities, particularly in mathematics. His spare time was spent sketching with his pencil, carving, and working at the tool bench with wood and metal. He made many ingenious mechanical works and some beautiful models, and enjoyed repairing nautical instruments. Apprenticeship After his mother died in 1754, the 18-year-old Watt was sent to Glasgow to train as a merchant with his uncle John Muirhead. One of his mothers relatives was the chair of the Oriental Languages and Humanities department at Glasgow College, and Watt became a member of the literary society there. He also met other scholars at Glasgow who would prove influential and supportive of his career: Robert Dick, professor of natural philosophy, Robert Simpson in mathematics, and William Cullen in medicine and chemistry. It was Dick who suggested that Watt go to London to get training as a mathematics instrument maker. With a letter of introduction, Watt left for London in 1755 and began working with the instrument maker John Morgan. Watt was not officially an apprentice, but he did work on mechanical instrumentation: Morgan thought he was talented but took too long to complete his work. The job with Morgan ended in June 1756 and Dick got him a short-term position to work on an astronomical clock, reflecting telescopes, and transit instruments. Watt returned to Greenock at the end of the year, but he soon went back to Glasgow where he began a small business in quadrant-making. He was appointed mathematical instrument-maker at Glasgow College, supported by Dicks replacement John Anderson, and by Cullens replacement and chemist Joseph Black (1728–1799). Black is best known for his work on latent and specific heats and for his discovery of carbon dioxide, and he was to become a staunch supporter of Watt. Early Experimentation In 1759, John Robison, a student at Glasgow, showed Watt a model of the Newcomen steam engine and suggested it might be used to propel carriages. The Newcomen was invented and patented in 1703 by Thomas Newcomen (1664–1729), and Watt began building miniature models using tin steam cylinders and pistons attached to driving wheels by a system of gears. In his own experiments he used, at first, apothecaries trials and hollow canes for steam reservoirs and pipes, and later a Papins digester and a common syringe. The latter combination made a noncondensing engine, in which he used steam at a pressure of 15 pounds per square inch. The valve was worked by hand, and James Watt saw that an automatic valve gear was needed to make a working machine. This experiment, however, led to no practical result and for the next several years, he abandoned this research. Watt stayed with the college until the 1760s, when he took up a partnership with a merchant named John Craig, financed partly with Black. One venture of theirs was producing alkali from salt- in the 18th century, alkali could only be produced from plants. Craig and Watt were one of several people looking for a way to create it chemically, an effort not achieved until 1820. Watt and Craig also worked on pottery kilns and glazes for making tin-glazed delftware. Marriage and Family In 1764, Watt married Margaret Millar, known as Peggy, a cousin he had known since they were children. They were to have five children, only two of which lived to adulthood: Margaret, born in 1767, and James III, born in 1769, who as an adult would become his fathers main support and business partner. The Newcomen Steam Engine Over the winter of 1763–1764, John Anderson at Glasgow asked Watt to repair a model of the Newcomen engine. He was able to get it running, but he was curious as to why the machine consumed so much steam and condensing water. Watts began studying the history of the steam engine and conducted experimental research into the properties of steam. The Newcomen steam engine model had a boiler that was made to scale and was incapable of furnishing enough steam to power an engine. It was about nine inches in diameter; the steam cylinder was two inches in  diameter and had a  six-inch  piston stroke. Watt made a new boiler that could measure the quantity of water evaporated and the steam condensed at every stroke of the engine. Watt soon discovered that the engine required a very small quantity of steam to heat a very large quantity of water. He immediately started to determine with precision the relative weights of steam and water in the steam cylinder when condensation took place at the down stroke of the engine. James Watt independently proved the existence of latent heat, which had been discovered by his mentor and supporter Joseph Black. Watt went to Black with his research, who shared his knowledge with Watt. Watt found that, at the boiling point, his condensing steam was capable of heating six times its weight of water used for producing condensation. Watts Separate Condenser Realizing that steam weight for weight was a vastly greater absorbent and reservoir of heat than water, Watt saw the importance of taking greater care to economize it than had previously been attempted. At first, he economized in the boiler and made boilers with wooden shells in order to prevent losses by conduction and radiation. He also used a larger number of flues than Newcomen had to secure  more complete  absorption of the heat from the furnace gases. He also covered his steam pipes with  non-conducting  materials and took every precaution to secure the complete utilization of the heat of combustion. He soon discovered that the sources of heat loss in the Newcomen engine ­ were: The dissipation of heat by the cylinder itself, which was of brass and was both a good conductor and a good radiator.The loss of heat consequent upon the necessity of cooling down the cylinder at every stroke in producing the vacuum.The loss of power due to the pressure of vapor beneath the piston, which was a consequence of the imperfect method of condensation. His first attempt at a cylinder of  non-conducting  material was made of  ­wood soaked in oil and then baked, which did increase the economy of steam. He then conducted a series of very accurate experiments upon the temperature and pressure of steam by measuring the amount of steam used at each stroke of the engine. He was able to confirm his previous conclusion that three-fourths of the heat supplied to the engine was wasted. Further Improvements After his scientific investigations, James Watt worked on improving the steam engine with an intelligent understanding of its existing defects and a knowledge of their cause. Watt soon saw that in order to reduce the losses in the working of the steam in the steam cylinder, it would be necessary to find a way to constantly keep the cylinder as hot as the steam that entered it. According to James Watt: The idea came into my mind that, as steam was an elastic body, it would rush into a vacuum, and, if a communication were made between the cylinder and an exhausted vessel, it would rush into it, and might be there condensed without cooling the cylinder. I then saw that I must get rid of the condensed steam and injection water if I used a jet, as in Newcomens engine. Two ways of doing this occurred to me: First, the water might be run off by a descending pipe, if an off jet could be got at the depth of 35 or 36 feet, and any air might be extracted by a small pump. The second was, to make the pump large enough to extract both water and air. He continued, When analyzed, the invention would not appear so great as it seemed to be. In the state in which I found the steam engine, it was no great effort of mind to observe that the quantity of fuel necessary to make it work would forever prevent its extensive utility. The next step in my progress was equally easy- to inquire what was the cause of the great consumption of fuel. This, too, was readily suggested, viz., the waste of fuel which was necessary to bring the whole cylinder, piston, and adjacent parts from the coldness of water to the heat of steam, no fewer than from 15 to 20 times in a minute. James Watt had invented his all-important separate condenser. He proceeded to make an experimental test of his new invention. His little model worked very well, and the perfection of the vacuum was such that the machine lifted an 18-pound weight suspended from the piston rod. He then constructed a larger model, and the result of its test confirmed the results of his first experiments. Watt Builds His Own Steam Engine It took years for Watt to figure out the details of the new steam engine. To start with, Watt had to find a way to prevent the condenser from filling with water. He tried several approaches, including an air pump, which relieved the condenser of the water and air which collected in the  condenser and lessened the vacuum. He next substituted oil and tallow for the water used to lubricate the piston, keeping the steam tight and preventing the cooling of the cylinder. Another cause of refrigeration of the cylinder and consequent waste of power in its  operation was the entrance of air, which followed the piston down the cylinder at each stroke, cooling its interior by its contact. The inventor prevented this from happening by covering the top of the cylinder and surrounding the whole cylinder with an external casing, or steam jacket, that allowed the steam from the boiler to pass around the steam cylinder and press on the upper surface of the piston. After building his larger experimental engine, Watt rented a room in an old deserted cottage. There, he worked with mechanic Folm Gardiner. Watt had just met John Roebuck, a wealthy physician, who had, with other Scotch capitalists, recently founded the celebrated Carron Iron Works. Roebuck began to support Watts efforts financially and Watt frequently wrote to Roebuck  describing  his progress. In  August 1765, he tried the small  engine and wrote Roebuck that he had good success, although the machine was very imperfect, and informed Roebuck that he was starting to make the larger model. In  October 1765, he finished the large steam engine. The engine, while ready for trial, was still far from perfect. It nevertheless did good work for such a crude machine. Financial and Personal Setbacks Unfortunately, by 1765, James Watt was reduced to poverty, and, after borrowing considerable sums from friends, he finally had to seek employment in order to provide for his family. During a span of about two  years, he supported himself as a civil engineer, surveying and managing the building of several canals in Scotland and exploring coal fields in the neighborhood of Glasgow for the magistrates of the city. He did not, however, entirely give up his invention. In 1767, Roebuck assumed Watts liabilities to the amount of  1,000 British pounds and agreed to provide more capital in exchange for  two-thirds  of Watts patent. Another engine was built with a steam cylinder seven or eight inches in diameter, which was finished in 1768. This worked sufficiently well to induce the partners to ask for a patent, and the specifications and drawings were completed and presented in 1769. Watt also built and set up several Newcomen engines, partly, perhaps, to make himself more thoroughly familiar with the practical details of engine building. Meantime, he prepared plans for and built a moderately large engine of his own new type. Its steam cylinder was 18 inches in diameter, and the stroke of the piston  was 5 feet. This engine was built at  Kinneil and was finished in  September 1769. It was not all satisfactory in either its construction or its operation. The condenser was a surface condenser composed of pipes somewhat like those used in his first little  model and did not prove to be satisfactorily tight. The steam piston leaked seriously, and repeated trials only served to make its imperfections more evident. He was assisted with financial and moral support by both Joseph Black and John  Roebuck, but  he felt strongly about the risks he ran of involving his friends in serious losses and became very despondent. Writing to Black, Watt said: Of all things in life, there is nothing more foolish than inventing; and probably the majority of inventors have been led to the same opinion by their own experiences. Partnership With Matthew Boulton In 1768, James Watt traveled to London to get his patent submitted, and on the way he met Matthew Boulton. Boulton was the owner of a Birmingham manufacturing company known as the Soho Manufactory, which made small metal goods. He  had inherited his fathers business and built it up considerably. He and his business were very well known in the mid-18th century English enlightenment movement. Boulton was a good scholar,  with a considerable knowledge of languages and science- particularly mathematics- despite having left school as a boy to go to work in his fathers shop. In the  shop, he soon introduced a number of valuable improvements and he was always on the lookout for other ideas that might be introduced into his business. He was also a member of the famous Lunar Society of Birmingham, a group of men who met to discuss natural philosophy, engineering, and industrial development together: other members included the discoverer of oxygen Joseph Priestley, Erasmus Darwin (grandfather of Charles Darwin), and the experimental potter Josiah Wedgewood. Watt joined the group after he became Boultons partner. A flamboyant and energetic scholar, Boulton made the acquaintance of Benjamin Franklin in 1758, who then visited Soho. By 1766, these distinguished men were corresponding, discussing among other things the applicability of steam power to various useful purposes. They designed a new steam engine and Boulton built a model, which was sent to Franklin and exhibited by him in London. They had yet to become aware of the existence of James Watt. When Boulton met Watt in 1768, he liked his engine and decided to buy an interest in the patent. With Roebucks consent, Watt offered Boulton a  one-third  interest. Although there were several complications, eventually Roebuck proposed to transfer to Matthew Boulton  one-half  of his proprietorship in Watts inventions for the sum of 1,000 pounds. This proposal was accepted in  November 1769. Working Steam Engines In  November 1774, Watt finally announced to his old partner Roebuck that he had made a successful trial of the Kilmeil engine. He did not write with his usual enthusiasm and extravagance; instead, he simply wrote: The fire engine I have invented is now going, and answers much better than any other that has yet been made, and I expect that the invention will be very beneficial to me. One reason for his lack of enthusiasm was that his wife had died during childbirth the previous year, in September 1773. Heartsick, Watt buried himself in work. From mid-February 1774 he was working on thermometers and barometers. He ended his civil engineering business in Scotland (in part because of a financial crisis in Scotland) and in May he journeyed south to Birmingham, where he joined the Lunar Society. In 1775, he went into a full-time partnership with Matthew Boulton. From that point forward, the firm of Boulton and Watt was able to produce a range of working engines with real-world applications. New innovations and patents were taken out for machines that could be used for grinding, weaving, and milling. Steam engines were put into use for transportation on both land and water. Nearly every successful and important invention that marked the history of steam power for many years originated in the Boulton and Watt workshops. Retirement and Death Watts work with Boulton transformed him into a figure of international stature among men of letters. His 25-year-long patent brought him wealth; and he and Boulton became leaders in the technological Enlightenment in England, with a solid reputation for innovative engineering. Watt married Ann Macgregor in 1776 and they had two children (Gregory and Jessy), both of whom would die young. James Watt Jr., his son from his first wife, survived his father and went on to have a role in the continuing English Enlightenment. As a result of his partnership with Matthew Boulton, James Watt became a very wealthy man, building an elegant mansion known as Heathfield House in Handsworth,  Staffordshire. He retired in 1800 and spent the rest of his life in leisure and traveling to visit friends and family. He died on August 25, 1819, at Heathfield. He was buried in the graveyard of  St Marys Church in Handsworth. Legacy In a very meaningful way, Watts inventions spurred on the Industrial Revolution and innovations of the modern age, ranging from automobiles and trains to factories and the social issues that evolved as a result. In addition, Watts name has been attached to streets, museums, and schools. His story has inspired books, movies, and works of art, including statues in Piccadilly Gardens and St. Pauls Cathedral. On the statue at St. Pauls are engraved the words: James Watt...enlarged the resources of his country, increased the power of man, and rose to an eminent place among the most illustrious followers of science and the real benefactors of the world. Sources Jones, Peter M. Living the Enlightenment and the French Revolution: James Watt, Matthew Boulton, and Their Sons. The Historical Journal 42.1 (1999): 157–82. Print.Hills, Richard L. Power from Steam: A History of the Stationary Steam Engine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.Miller, David Philip. Puffing Jamie: The Commercial and Ideological Importance of Being a ‘Philosopher’ in the Case of the Reputation of James Watt (1736–1819). History of Science 38.1 (2000): 1–24. Print.The Life and Legend of James Watt: Collaboration, Natural Philosophy, and the Improvement of the Steam Engine. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2019.  Pugh, Jennifer S., and John Hudson. The Chemical Work of James Watt, F.R.S. Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 40.1 (1985): 41–52. Print.Russell, Ben. James Watt: Making the World Anew. London: Science Museum, 2014.  Wright, Michael. James Watt: Musical Instrument Maker. The Galpin Soci ety Journal 55 (2002): 104–29. Print.